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W
hen has an author been scooped? It sounds like a simple question, but in fact, as a recent editorial meeting unfolded, this issue became far more complex than I had thought.
Mark Mulligan leads Emory swine flu vaccine trial
The Alzheimer’s project: HBO Documentary Films and the National Institute on Aging at the NIH. 2009.
Magnetic appeal: MRI and the myth of transparency
Dendritic cells in intestinal homeostasis and disease
Maria Rescigno, Antonio Di Sabatino
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Cs are specialized APCs that orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses. The intestinal mucosa contains numerous DCs, which induce either protective immunity to infectious agents or tolerance to innocuous antigens, including food and commensal bacteria. Several subsets of mucosal DCs have been described that display unique functions, dictated in part by the local microenvironment. In this review, we summarize the distinct subtypes of DCs and their distribution in the gut; examine how DC dysfunction contributes to intestinal disease development, including inflammatory bowel disease and celiac disease; and discuss manipulation of DCs for therapy.
Tales from the gene pool: a genomic view of infectious
disease
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esearch into the pathogenesis, prevention, and control of infectious and parasitic
diseases remains a global priority, as these scourges continue to be a substantial
cause of mortality and morbidity. The plethora of molecular tools that are now
readily available has facilitated a genome-wide approach to studying the pathogenesis
of such diseases, with direct implications for disease prevention and treatment. The
articles in this Review Series describe how genome-wide approaches have provided
insight into a range of human pathogens, leading to greater understanding of the
human diseases that they cause, and highlight some of the challenges that must be
overcome if we are to maximize what we learn from the wealth of genomic information
now available.
A decade of molecular pathogenomic analysis of group A Streptococcus
James M. Musser, Samuel A. Shelburne
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olecular pathogenomic analysis of the human bacterial pathogen group A Streptococcus has been conducted for a decade. Much has been learned as a consequence of the confluence of low-cost DNA sequencing, microarray technology, high-throughput proteomics, and enhanced bioinformatics. These technical advances, coupled with the availability of unique bacterial strain collections, have facilitated a systems biology investigative strategy designed to enhance and accelerate our understanding of disease processes. Here, we provide examples of the progress made by exploiting an integrated genome-wide research platform to gain new insight into molecular pathogenesis. The studies have provided many new avenues for basic and translational research.
Reemergence of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the genomics era
Frank R. DeLeo, Henry F. Chambers
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i>Staphylococcus aureus is the leading cause of bacterial infections in developed countries and produces a wide spectrum of diseases, ranging from minor skin infections to fatal necrotizing pneumonia. Although S. aureus infections were historically treatable with common antibiotics, emergence of drug-resistant organisms is now a major concern. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was endemic in hospitals by the late 1960s, but it appeared rapidly and unexpectedly in communities in the 1990s and is now prevalent worldwide. This Review focuses on progress made toward understanding the success of community-associated MRSA as a human pathogen, with an emphasis on genome-wide approaches and virulence determinants.
Coadaptation of Helicobacter pylori and humans: ancient history, modern implications
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umans have been colonized by Helicobacter pylori for at least 50,000 years and probably throughout their evolution. H. pylori has adapted to humans, colonizing children and persisting throughout life. Most strains possess factors that subtly modulate the host environment, increasing the risk of peptic ulceration, gastric adenocarcinoma, and possibly other diseases. H. pylori genes encoding these and other factors rapidly evolve through mutation and recombination, changing the bacteria-host interaction. Although immune and physiologic responses to H. pylori also contribute to pathogenesis, humans have evolved in concert with the bacterium, and its recent absence throughout the life of many individuals has led to new human physiological changes. These may have contributed to recent increases in esophageal adenocarcinoma and, more speculatively, other modern diseases.
RNA virus genomics: a world of possibilities
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he increasing availability of complete genome sequences of RNA viruses has the potential to shed new light on fundamental aspects of their biology. Here, I use case studies of 3 RNA viruses to explore the impact of genomic sequence data, with particular emphasis on influenza A virus. Notably, the studies of RNA virus genomics undertaken to date largely focused on issues of evolution and epidemiology, and they have given these disciplines new impetus. However, genomic data have so far made fewer inroads into areas of more direct importance for disease, prevention, and control; thus, harnessing their full potential remains an important goal.
The impact of malaria parasitism: from corpuscles to communities
Thomas E. Wellems, Karen Hayton, Rick M. Fairhurst
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alaria continues to exert a tremendous health burden on human populations, reflecting astonishingly successful adaptations of the causative Plasmodium parasites. We discuss here how this burden has driven the natural selection of numerous polymorphisms in the genes encoding hemoglobin and other erythrocyte proteins and some effectors of immunity. Plasmodium falciparum, the most deadly parasite species in humans, displays a vigorous system of antigen variation to counter host defenses and families of functionally redundant ligands to invade human cells. Advances in genetics and genomics are providing fresh insights into the nature of these evolutionary adaptations, processes of parasite transmission and infection, and the difficult challenges of malaria control.
Human genetics of infectious diseases: between proof of principle and paradigm
Alexandre Alcaïs, Laurent Abel, Jean-Laurent Casanova
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he observation that only a fraction of individuals infected by infectious agents develop clinical disease raises fundamental questions about the actual pathogenesis of infectious diseases. Epidemiological and experimental evidence is accumulating to suggest that human genetics plays a major role in this process. As we discuss here, human predisposition to infectious diseases seems to cover a continuous spectrum from monogenic to polygenic inheritance. Although many studies have provided proof of principle that infectious diseases may result from various types of inborn errors of immunity, the genetic determinism of most infectious diseases in most patients remains unclear. However, in the future, studies in human genetics are likely to establish a new paradigm for infectious diseases.
Vaccinology in the genome era
C. Daniela Rinaudo, John L. Telford, Rino Rappuoli, Kate L. Seib
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accination has played a significant role in controlling and eliminating life-threatening infectious diseases throughout the world, and yet currently licensed vaccines represent only the tip of the iceberg in terms of controlling human pathogens. However, as we discuss in this Review, the arrival of the genome era has revolutionized vaccine development and catalyzed a shift from conventional culture-based approaches to genome-based vaccinology. The availability of complete bacterial genomes has led to the development and application of high-throughput analyses that enable rapid targeted identification of novel vaccine antigens. Furthermore, structural vaccinology is emerging as a powerful tool for the rational design or modification of vaccine antigens to improve their immunogenicity and safety.
MicroRNA-modulated targeting of vascular smooth muscle cells
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SMCs exhibit the remarkable plasticity required for development and adaptation of the cardiovascular system. The capacity of VSMCs to modulate their phenotype has evolved to facilitate angiogenesis and wound healing, but it has also been implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, restenosis, posttransplant arteriopathy, and pulmonary hypertension. In this issue of the JCI, Boettger and colleagues report that the recently discovered Mir143/145 gene cluster promotes acquisition of the contractile phenotype of murine VSMCs (see the related article beginning on page 2634). These VSMC-restricted microRNAs, which target unique combinations of SMC genes, provide an efficient mechanism to fine-tune cardiovascular homeostasis and the response of the vessel wall to injury. This important discovery will open the door to new avenues of investigation and potentially future therapies for vascular diseases.
Defining a role for the homeoprotein Six1 in EMT and mammary tumorigenesis
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omeobox (Hox) genes encode transcription factors that act as critical regulators of growth and differentiation during embryogenesis. While many studies have identified increased expression of Hox genes in tumors, much less is known about the mechanistic basis by which Hox genes facilitate tumor development. In this issue of the JCI, McCoy and colleagues show that transgenic mice that express the homeoprotein Six1 in mammary epithelial cells show increases in stem/progenitor cell populations and subsequent tumor development, while in a separate study Micalizzi and colleagues show that overexpression of Six1 facilitates breast cancer cell metastasis by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) (see the related articles beginning on pages 2663 and 2678, respectively). Their findings implicate Six1 as a central mediator of breast cancer development.
Endocytic control of ion channel density as a target for cardiovascular disease
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on channels encoded by the human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) give rise to the rapidly activating delayed rectifier K+ current (IKr), the perturbation of which causes ventricular arrhythmias associated with inherited and acquired long QT syndrome. Electrolyte imbalances, such as reduced serum K+ levels (hypokalemia), also trigger these potentially fatal arrhythmias. In this issue of the JCI, Guo et al. report that physiological levels of serum K+ are required to maintain normal HERG surface density in HEK 293 cells and IKr in rabbit cardiomyocytes. They found that hypokalemia evoked HERG channel ubiquitination, enhanced internalization via endocytosis, and ultimately degradation at the lysosome, thus identifying unbridled turnover as a mechanism of hypokalemia-induced arrhythmia. But too little channel turnover can also cause disease, as suggested by Kruse et al. in a study also in this issue. The authors identified mutations in TRPM4 — a nonselective cation channel — in a large family with progressive familial heart block type I and showed that these mutations prevented channel internalization (see the related articles beginning on pages 2745 and 2737, respectively).
Pass the bicarb: the importance of HCO3– for mucin release
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ccumulation of thick, sticky mucus is a hallmark of the genetic disease cystic fibrosis (CF) and has a central role in CF pathophysiology. Mutations in the CF transmembrane regulator (CFTR) ion channel are known to result in abnormally thick and sticky mucus; however, why mucus accumulates in CF is still not completely understood. In this issue of the JCI, Garcia and colleagues show that mucin — the heavily glycosylated protein contained within mucus — requires CFTR and bicarbonate in order to be released from mouse intestine (see the related article beginning on page 2613). The authors propose a model whereby CFTR-mediated bicarbonate secretion must be concurrent with mucin exocytosis for proper mucin release.
Wnt signaling regulates smooth muscle precursor development in the mouse lung via a tenascin C/PDGFR pathway
Ethan David Cohen, Kaori Ihida-Stansbury, Min Min Lu, Reynold A. Panettieri, Peter Lloyd Jones, Edward E. Morrisey
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aracrine signaling from lung epithelium to the surrounding mesenchyme is important for lung SMC development and function and is a contributing factor in an array of pulmonary diseases such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia, pulmonary hypertension, and asthma. Wnt7b, which is exclusively expressed in the lung epithelium, is important for lung vascular smooth muscle integrity, but the underlying mechanism by which Wnt signaling regulates lung SMC development is unclear. In this report, we have demonstrated that Wnt7b regulates a program of mesenchymal differentiation in the mouse lung that is essential for SMC development. Genetic loss-of-function studies showed that Wnt7b and β-catenin were required for expression of Pdgfrα and Pdgfrβ and proliferation in pulmonary SMC precursors. In contrast, gain-of-function studies showed that activation of Wnt signaling increased the expression of both Pdgfrα and Pdgfrβ as well as the proliferation of SMC precursors. We further showed that the effect on Pdgfr expression was, in part, mediated by direct transcriptional regulation of the ECM protein tenascin C (Tnc), which was necessary and sufficient for Pdgfrα/β expression in lung explants. Moreover, this pathway was highly upregulated in a mouse model of asthma and in lung tissue from patients with pulmonary hypertension. Together, these data define a Wnt/Tnc/Pdgfr signaling axis that is critical for smooth muscle development and disease progression in the lung.
Increased local expression of coagulation factor X contributes to the fibrotic response in human and murine lung injury
Chris J. Scotton, Malvina A. Krupiczojc, Melanie Königshoff, Paul F. Mercer, Y.C. Gary Lee, Naftali Kaminski, John Morser, Joseph M. Post, Toby M. Maher, Andrew G. Nicholson, James D. Moffatt, Geoffrey J. Laurent, Claudia K. Derian, Oliver Eickelberg, Rachel C. Chambers
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ncontrolled activation of the coagulation cascade contributes to the pathophysiology of several conditions, including acute and chronic lung diseases. Coagulation zymogens are considered to be largely derived from the circulation and locally activated in response to tissue injury and microvascular leak. Here we report that expression of coagulation factor X (FX) is locally increased in human and murine fibrotic lung tissue, with marked immunostaining associated with bronchial and alveolar epithelia. FXa was a potent inducer of the myofibroblast differentiation program in cultured primary human adult lung fibroblasts via TGF-β activation that was mediated by proteinase-activated receptor–1 (PAR1) and integrin αvβ5. PAR1, αvβ5, and α-SMA colocalized to fibrotic foci in lung biopsy specimens from individuals with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Moreover, we demonstrated a causal link between FXa and fibrosis development by showing that a direct FXa inhibitor attenuated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. These data support what we believe to be a novel pathogenetic mechanism by which FXa, a central proteinase of the coagulation cascade, is locally expressed and drives the fibrotic response to lung injury. These findings herald a shift in our understanding of the origins of excessive procoagulant activity and place PAR1 central to the cross-talk between local procoagulant signaling and tissue remodeling.
CpG-containing immunostimulatory DNA sequences elicit TNF-α–dependent toxicity in rodents but not in humans
John D. Campbell, Yan Cho, Martyn L. Foster, Holger Kanzler, Melissa A. Kachura, Jeremy A. Lum, Marianne J. Ratcliffe, Atul Sathe, Andrew J. Leishman, Ash Bahl, Mark McHale, Robert L. Coffman, Edith M. Hessel
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pG-containing immunostimulatory DNA sequences (ISS), which signal through TLR9, are being developed as a therapy for allergic indications and have proven to be safe and well tolerated in humans when administrated via the pulmonary route. In contrast, ISS inhalation has unexplained toxicity in rodents, which express TLR9 in monocyte/macrophage lineage cells as well as in plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) and B cells, the principal TLR9-expressing cells in humans. We therefore investigated the mechanisms underlying this rodent-specific toxicity and its implications for humans. Mice responded to intranasally administered 1018 ISS, a representative B class ISS, with strictly TLR9-dependent toxicity, including lung inflammation and weight loss, that was fully reversible and pDC and B cell independent. Knockout mouse experiments demonstrated that ISS-induced toxicity was critically dependent on TNF-α, with IFN-α required for TNF-α induction. In contrast, human PBMCs, human alveolar macrophages, and airway-derived cells from Ascaris suum–allergic cynomolgus monkeys did not produce appreciable TNF-α in vitro in response to ISS stimulation. Moreover, sputum of allergic humans exposed to inhaled ISS demonstrated induction of IFN-inducible genes but minimal TNF-α induction. These data demonstrate that ISS induce rodent-specific TNF-α–dependent toxicity that is absent in humans and reflective of differential TLR9 expression patterns in rodents versus humans.
Palmitic acid mediates hypothalamic insulin resistance by altering PKC-θ subcellular localization in rodents
Stephen C. Benoit, Christopher J. Kemp, Carol F. Elias, William Abplanalp, James P. Herman, Stephanie Migrenne, Anne-Laure Lefevre, Céline Cruciani-Guglielmacci, Christophe Magnan, Fang Yu, Kevin Niswender, Boman G. Irani, William L. Holland, Deborah J. Clegg
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nsulin signaling can be modulated by several isoforms of PKC in peripheral tissues. Here, we assessed whether one specific isoform, PKC-θ, was expressed in critical CNS regions that regulate energy balance and whether it mediated the deleterious effects of diets high in fat, specifically palmitic acid, on hypothalamic insulin activity in rats and mice. Using a combination of in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, we found that PKC-θ was expressed in discrete neuronal populations of the arcuate nucleus, specifically the neuropeptide Y/agouti-related protein neurons and the dorsal medial nucleus in the hypothalamus. CNS exposure to palmitic acid via direct infusion or by oral gavage increased the localization of PKC-θ to cell membranes in the hypothalamus, which was associated with impaired hypothalamic insulin and leptin signaling. This finding was specific for palmitic acid, as the monounsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, neither increased membrane localization of PKC-θ nor induced insulin resistance. Finally, arcuate-specific knockdown of PKC-θ attenuated diet-induced obesity and improved insulin signaling. These results suggest that many of the deleterious effects of high-fat diets, specifically those enriched with palmitic acid, are CNS mediated via PKC-θ activation, resulting in reduced insulin activity.
Maternal alloantibodies induce a postnatal immune response that limits engraftment following in utero hematopoietic cell transplantation in mice
Demetri J. Merianos, Eleonor Tiblad, Matthew T. Santore, Carlyn A. Todorow, Pablo Laje, Masayuki Endo, Philip W. Zoltick, Alan W. Flake
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he lack of fetal immune responses to foreign antigens, i.e., fetal immunologic tolerance, is the most compelling rationale for prenatal stem cell and gene therapy. However, the frequency of engraftment following in utero hematopoietic cell transplantation (IUHCT) in the murine model is reduced in allogeneic, compared with congenic, recipients. This observation supports the existence of an immune barrier to fetal transplantation and challenges the classic assumptions of fetal tolerance. Here, we present evidence that supports the presence of an adaptive immune response in murine recipients of IUHCT that failed to maintain engraftment. However, when IUHCT recipients were fostered by surrogate mothers, they all maintained long-term chimerism. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the cells responsible for rejection of the graft were recipient in origin. Our observations suggest a mechanism by which IUHCT-dependent sensitization of the maternal immune system and the subsequent transmission of maternal alloantibodies to pups through breast milk induces a postnatal adaptive immune response in the recipient, which, in turn, results in the ablation of engraftment after IUHCT. Finally, we showed that non-fostered pups that maintained their chimerism had higher levels of Tregs as well as a more suppressive Treg phenotype than their non-chimeric, non-fostered siblings. This study resolves the apparent contradiction of induction of an adaptive immune response in the pre-immune fetus and confirms the potential of actively acquired tolerance to facilitate prenatal therapeutic applications.
Aldosterone mediates activation of the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter through an SGK1 and WNK4 signaling pathway
David J. Rozansky, Tonya Cornwall, Arohan R. Subramanya, Shaunessy Rogers, Yong-Feng Yang, Larry L. David, Xiaoman Zhu, Chao-Ling Yang, David H. Ellison
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ldosterone regulates volume homeostasis and blood pressure by enhancing sodium reabsorption in the kidney’s distal nephron (DN). On the apical surface of these renal epithelia, aldosterone increases expression and activity of the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter (NCC) and the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC). While the cellular mechanisms by which aldosterone regulates ENaC have been well characterized, the molecular mechanisms that link aldosterone to NCC-mediated Na+/Cl– reabsorption remain elusive. The serine/threonine kinase with-no-lysine 4 (WNK4) has previously been shown to reduce cell surface expression of NCC. Here we measured sodium uptake in a Xenopus oocyte expression system and found that serum and glucocorticoid–induced kinase 1 (SGK1), an aldosterone-responsive gene expressed in the DN, attenuated the inhibitory effect of WNK4 on NCC activity. In addition, we showed — both in vitro and in a human kidney cell line — that SGK1 bound and phosphorylated WNK4. We found one serine located within an established SGK1 consensus target sequence, and the other within a motif that was, to our knowledge, previously uncharacterized. Mutation of these target serines to aspartate, in order to mimic phosphorylation, attenuated the effect of WNK4 on NCC activity in the Xenopus oocyte system. These data thus delineate what we believe to be a novel mechanism for aldosterone activation of NCC through SGK1 signaling of WNK4 kinase.
Normal mouse intestinal mucus release requires cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator–dependent bicarbonate secretion
Mary Abigail S. Garcia, Ning Yang, Paul M. Quinton
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he mechanisms underlying mucus-associated pathologies in cystic fibrosis (CF) remain obscure. However, recent studies indicate that CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is required for bicarbonate (HCO3–) transport and that HCO3– is critical for normal mucus formation. We therefore investigated the role of HCO3– in mucus secretion using mouse small intestine segments ex vivo. Basal rates of mucus release in the presence or absence of HCO3– were similar. However, in the absence of HCO3–, mucus release stimulated by either PGE2 or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) was approximately half that stimulated by these molecules in the presence of HCO3–. Inhibition of HCO3– and fluid transport markedly reduced stimulated mucus release. However, neither absence of HCO3– nor inhibition of HCO3– transport affected fluid secretion rates, indicating that the effect of HCO3– removal on mucus release was not due to decreased fluid secretion. In a mouse model of CF (mice homozygous for the most common human CFTR mutation), intestinal mucus release was minimal when stimulated with either PGE2 or 5-HT in the presence or absence of HCO3–. These data suggest that normal mucus release requires concurrent HCO3– secretion and that the characteristically aggregated mucus observed in mucin-secreting organs in individuals with CF may be a consequence of defective HCO3– transport.
Human PTRF mutations cause secondary deficiency of caveolins resulting in muscular dystrophy with generalized lipodystrophy
Yukiko K. Hayashi, Chie Matsuda, Megumu Ogawa, Kanako Goto, Kayo Tominaga, Satomi Mitsuhashi, Young-Eun Park, Ikuya Nonaka, Naomi Hino-Fukuyo, Kazuhiro Haginoya, Hisashi Sugano, Ichizo Nishino
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aveolae are invaginations of the plasma membrane involved in many cellular processes, including clathrin-independent endocytosis, cholesterol transport, and signal transduction. They are characterized by the presence of caveolin proteins. Mutations that cause deficiency in caveolin-3, which is expressed exclusively in skeletal and cardiac muscle, have been linked to muscular dystrophy. Polymerase I and transcript release factor (PTRF; also known as cavin) is a caveolar-associated protein suggested to play an essential role in the formation of caveolae and the stabilization of caveolins. Here, we identified PTRF mutations in 5 nonconsanguineous patients who presented with both generalized lipodystrophy and muscular dystrophy. Muscle hypertrophy, muscle mounding, mild metabolic complications, and elevated serum creatine kinase levels were observed in these patients. Skeletal muscle biopsies revealed chronic dystrophic changes, deficiency and mislocalization of all 3 caveolin family members, and reduction of caveolae structure. We generated expression constructs recapitulating the human mutations; upon overexpression in myoblasts, these mutations resulted in PTRF mislocalization and disrupted physical interaction with caveolins. Our data confirm that PTRF is essential for formation of caveolae and proper localization of caveolins in human cells and suggest that clinical features observed in the patients with PTRF mutations are associated with a secondary deficiency of caveolins.
Acquisition of the contractile phenotype by murine arterial smooth muscle cells depends on the Mir143/145 gene cluster
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SMCs respond to changes in the local environment by adjusting their phenotype from contractile to synthetic, a phenomenon known as phenotypic modulation or switching. Failure of VSMCs to acquire and maintain the contractile phenotype plays a key role in a number of major human diseases, including arteriosclerosis. Although several regulatory circuits that control differentiation of SMCs have been identified, the decisive mechanisms that govern phenotypic modulation remain unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the mouse miR-143/145 cluster, expression of which is confined to SMCs during development, is required for VSMC acquisition of the contractile phenotype. VSMCs from miR-143/145–deficient mice were locked in the synthetic state, which incapacitated their contractile abilities and favored neointimal lesion development. Unbiased high-throughput, quantitative, mass spectrometry–based proteomics using reference mice labeled with stable isotopes allowed identification of miR-143/145 targets; these included angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), which might affect both the synthetic phenotype and contractile functions of VSMCs. Pharmacological inhibition of either ACE or the AT1 receptor partially reversed vascular dysfunction and normalized gene expression in miR-143/145–deficient mice. We conclude that manipulation of miR-143/145 expression may offer a new approach for influencing vascular repair and attenuating arteriosclerotic pathogenesis.
Tumor emergence is sensed by self-specific CD44hi memory Tregs that create a dominant tolerogenic environment for tumors in mice
Guillaume Darrasse-Jèze, Anne-Sophie Bergot, Aurélie Durgeau, Fabienne Billiard, Benoît L. Salomon, José L. Cohen, Bertrand Bellier, Katrina Podsypanina, David Klatzmann
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arly responses of Tregs and effector T cells (Teffs) to their first encounter with tumor cells have been poorly characterized. Here we have shown, in both implanted and in situ–induced mouse tumor models, that the appearance of tumor cells is immediately sensed by CD44hi memory Tregs that are specific for self antigens. The rapid response of these Tregs preceded and prevented activation of naive antitumor Teffs. The relative speed of the Treg versus the Teff response within the first 2–4 days determined the outcome of the antitumor immune response: tolerance or rejection. If antitumor memory Teffs were present at the time of tumor emergence, both Tregs and Teffs were recruited and activated with memory kinetics; however, the Tregs were unable to control the Teffs, which eradicated the tumor cells. This balance between effector and regulatory responses did not depend on the number of Tregs and Teffs, but rather on their memory status. Thus, in the natural setting, dominant tolerogenic immunosurveillance by self-specific memory Tregs protects tumors, just as it protects normal tissues. More generally, our results reveal that the timing of Treg and Teff engagement, determined by their memory status, is an important mode of regulation of immune responses.
Six1 expands the mouse mammary epithelial stem/progenitor cell pool and induces mammary tumors that undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition
Erica L. McCoy, Ritsuko Iwanaga, Paul Jedlicka, Nee-Shamo Abbey, Lewis A. Chodosh, Karen A. Heichman, Alana L. Welm, Heide L. Ford
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ix1 is a developmentally regulated homeoprotein with limited expression in most normal adult tissues and frequent misexpression in a variety of malignancies. Here we demonstrate, using a bitransgenic mouse model, that misexpression of human Six1 in adult mouse mammary gland epithelium induces tumors of multiple histological subtypes in a dose-dependent manner. The neoplastic lesions induced by Six1 had an in situ origin, showed diverse differentiation, and exhibited progression to aggressive malignant neoplasms, as is often observed in human carcinoma of the breast. Strikingly, the vast majority of Six1-induced tumors underwent an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and expressed multiple targets of activated Wnt signaling, including cyclin D1. Interestingly, Six1 and cyclin D1 coexpression was found to frequently occur in human breast cancers and was strongly predictive of poor prognosis. We further show that Six1 promoted a stem/progenitor cell phenotype in the mouse mammary gland and in Six1-driven mammary tumors. Our data thus provide genetic evidence for a potent oncogenic role for Six1 in mammary epithelial neoplasia, including promotion of EMT and stem cell–like features.
The Six1 homeoprotein induces human mammary carcinoma cells to undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis in mice through increasing TGF-β signaling
Douglas S. Micalizzi, Kimberly L. Christensen, Paul Jedlicka, Ricardo D. Coletta, Anna E. Barón, J. Chuck Harrell, Kathryn B. Horwitz, Dean Billheimer, Karen A. Heichman, Alana L. Welm, William P. Schiemann, Heide L. Ford
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nappropriate activation of developmental pathways is a well-recognized tumor-promoting mechanism. Here we show that overexpression of the homeoprotein Six1, normally a developmentally restricted transcriptional regulator, increases TGF-β signaling in human breast cancer cells and induces an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) that is in part dependent on its ability to increase TGF-β signaling. TGF-β signaling and EMT have been implicated in metastatic dissemination of carcinoma. Accordingly, we used spontaneous and experimental metastasis mouse models to demonstrate that Six1 overexpression promotes breast cancer metastasis. In addition, we show that, like its induction of EMT, Six1-induced experimental metastasis is dependent on its ability to activate TGF-β signaling. Importantly, in human breast cancers Six1 correlated with nuclear Smad3 and thus increased TGF-β signaling. Further, breast cancer patients whose tumors overexpressed Six1 had a shortened time to relapse and metastasis and an overall decrease in survival. Finally, we show that the effects of Six1 on tumor progression likely extend beyond breast cancer, since its overexpression correlated with adverse outcomes in numerous other cancers including brain, cervical, prostate, colon, kidney, and liver. Our findings indicate that Six1, acting through TGF-β signaling and EMT, is a powerful and global promoter of cancer metastasis.
Inactivating cholecystokinin-2 receptor inhibits progastrin-dependent colonic crypt fission, proliferation, and colorectal cancer in mice
Guangchun Jin, Vigneshwaran Ramanathan, Michael Quante, Gwang Ho Baik, Xiangdong Yang, Sophie S.W. Wang, Shuiping Tu, Shanisha A.K. Gordon, David Mark Pritchard, Andrea Varro, Arthur Shulkes, Timothy C. Wang
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yperproliferation of the colonic epithelium, leading to expansion of colonic crypt progenitors, is a recognized risk factor for colorectal cancer. Overexpression of progastrin, a nonamidated and incompletely processed product of the gastrin gene, has been shown to induce colonic hyperproliferation and promote colorectal cancer in mice, but the mechanism of pathogenesis has not been defined. Cholecystokinin-2 receptor (CCK2R) is the primary receptor for cholecystokinin (CCK) and amidated gastrin. Here, we show that Cck2r was expressed in murine colonic crypts and upregulated in the transgenic mice that overexpress human progastrin. Murine deletion of Cck2r abrogated progastrin-dependent increases in colonic proliferation, mucosal thickness, and β-catenin and CD44 expression in the colon tumor. In addition, either deletion or antagonism of Cck2r resulted in the inhibition of progastrin-dependent increases in progenitors expressing doublecortin and CaM kinase–like-1 (DCAMKL1), stem cells expressing leucine rich repeat–containing G protein–coupled receptor 5 (LgR5), and colonic crypt fission. Furthermore, in the azoxymethane mouse model of colorectal carcinogenesis, Cck2r deletion in human progastrin–overexpressing mice resulted in markedly decreased aberrant crypt foci formation and substantially reduced tumor size and multiplicity. Taken together, these observations indicate that progastrin induces proliferative effects, primarily in colonic progenitor cells, through a CCK2R-dependent pathway. Moreover, our data suggest that CCK2R may be a potential target in the treatment or prevention of colorectal cancer.
Tumor-specific apoptosis caused by deletion of the ERBB3 pseudo-kinase in mouse intestinal epithelium
Daekee Lee, Ming Yu, Eunjung Lee, Hyunok Kim, Yanan Yang, Kyoungmi Kim, Christina Pannicia, Jonathan M. Kurie, David W. Threadgill
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harmacologic blockade of EGFR or the closely related receptor ERBB2 has modest efficacy against colorectal cancers in the clinic. Although the upregulation of ERBB3, a pseudo-kinase member of the EGFR/ERBB family, is known to contribute to EGFR inhibitor resistance in other cancers, its functions in normal and malignant intestinal epithelium have not been defined. We have shown here that the intestinal epithelium of mice with intestine-specific genetic ablation of Erbb3 exhibits no cytological abnormalities but does exhibit loss of expression of ERBB4 and sensitivity to intestinal damage. By contrast, intestine-specific Erbb3 ablation resulted in almost complete absence of intestinal tumors in the ApcMin mouse model of colon cancer. Unlike nontransformed epithelium lacking ERBB3, intestinal tumors lacking ERBB3 had reduced PI3K/AKT signaling, which led to attenuation of tumorigenesis via a tumor-specific increase in caspase-3–mediated apoptosis. Consistent with the mouse data, which suggest that ERBB3-ERBB4 heterodimers contribute to colon cancer survival, experimentally induced loss of ERBB3 in a KRAS mutant human colon cancer cell line was associated with loss of ERBB4 expression, and siRNA knockdown of either ERBB3 or ERBB4 resulted in elevated levels of apoptosis. These results indicate that the ERBB3 pseudo-kinase has essential roles in supporting intestinal tumorigenesis and suggest that ERBB3 may be a promising target for the treatment of colorectal cancers.
Deficiencies in Chfr and Mlh1 synergistically enhance tumor susceptibility in mice
Zheng Fu, Kevin Regan, Lizhi Zhang, Michael H. Muders, Stephen N. Thibodeau, Amy French, Yanhong Wu, Scott H. Kaufmann, Wilma L. Lingle, Junjie Chen, Donald J. Tindall
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enetic instability, which leads to an accumulation of various genetic abnormalities, has been considered an essential component of the human neoplasic transformation process. However, the molecular basis of genomic instability during tumorigenesis remains incompletely understood. Growing evidence indicates that checkpoint with forkhead and ring finger domains (CHFR), a recently identified mitotic checkpoint protein, plays an important role in maintaining chromosome integrity and functions as a tumor suppressor. In this study, we used high-throughput technology to conduct gene expression profiling of human colon cancers and found that loss of CHFR expression frequently occurred in colon cancers with high microsatellite instability (MSI-H). Downregulation of CHFR expression was closely associated with overexpression of Aurora A, an important mitotic kinase. Mice with deficiencies in both Chfr and Mlh1 (the gene that encodes the DNA mismatch-repair protein Mlh1) displayed dramatically higher incidence of spontaneous tumors relative to mice deficient for only one of these genes. These results suggest that defects in both Chfr and Mlh1 synergistically increase predisposition to tumorigenesis.
Binding of pro-prion to filamin A disrupts cytoskeleton and correlates with poor prognosis in pancreatic cancer
Chaoyang Li, Shuiliang Yu, Fumihiko Nakamura, Shaoman Yin, Jinghua Xu, Amber A. Petrolla, Neena Singh, Alan Tartakoff, Derek W. Abbott, Wei Xin, Man-Sun Sy
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he cellular prion protein (PrP) is a highly conserved, widely expressed, glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored (GPI-anchored) cell surface glycoprotein. Since its discovery, most studies on PrP have focused on its role in neurodegenerative prion diseases, whereas its function outside the nervous system remains unclear. Here, we report that human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cell lines expressed PrP. However, the PrP was neither glycosylated nor GPI-anchored, existing as pro-PrP and retaining its GPI anchor peptide signal sequence (GPI-PSS). We also showed that the PrP GPI-PSS has a filamin A–binding (FLNa-binding) motif and interacted with FLNa, an actin-associated protein that integrates cell mechanics and signaling. Binding of pro-PrP to FLNa disrupted cytoskeletal organization. Inhibition of PrP expression by shRNA in the PDAC cell lines altered the cytoskeleton and expression of multiple signaling proteins; it also reduced cellular proliferation and invasiveness in vitro as well as tumor growth in vivo. A subgroup of human patients with pancreatic cancer was found to have tumors that expressed pro-PrP. Most importantly, PrP expression in tumors correlated with a marked decrease in patient survival. We propose that binding of pro-PrP to FLNa perturbs FLNa function, thus contributing to the aggressiveness of PDAC. Prevention of this interaction could provide an attractive target for therapeutic intervention in human PDAC.
Impaired endocytosis of the ion channel TRPM4 is associated with human progressive familial heart block type I
Martin Kruse, Eric Schulze-Bahr, Valerie Corfield, Alf Beckmann, Birgit Stallmeyer, Güven Kurtbay, Iris Ohmert, Ellen Schulze-Bahr, Paul Brink, Olaf Pongs
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rogressive familial heart block type I (PFHBI) is a progressive cardiac bundle branch disease in the His-Purkinje system that exhibits autosomal-dominant inheritance. In 3 branches of a large South African Afrikaner pedigree with an autosomal-dominant form of PFHBI, we identified the mutation c.19G→A in the transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily M, member 4 gene (TRPM4) at chromosomal locus 19q13.3. This mutation predicted the amino acid substitution p.E7K in the TRPM4 amino terminus. TRPM4 encodes a Ca2+-activated nonselective cation (CAN) channel that belongs to the transient receptor potential melastatin ion channel family. Quantitative analysis of TRPM4 mRNA content in human cardiac tissue showed the highest expression level in Purkinje fibers. Cellular expression studies showed that the c.19G→A missense mutation attenuated deSUMOylation of the TRPM4 channel. The resulting constitutive SUMOylation of the mutant TRPM4 channel impaired endocytosis and led to elevated TRPM4 channel density at the cell surface. Our data therefore revealed a gain-of-function mechanism underlying this type of familial heart block.
Extracellular K+ concentration controls cell surface density of IKr in rabbit hearts and of the HERG channel in human cell lines
A
lthough the modulation of ion channel gating by hormones and drugs has been extensively studied, much less is known about how cell surface ion channel expression levels are regulated. Here, we demonstrate that the cell surface density of both the heterologously expressed K+ channel encoded by the human ether-a-go-go–related gene (HERG) and its native counterpart, the rapidly activating delayed rectifier K+ channel (IKr), in rabbit hearts in vivo is precisely controlled by extracellular K+ concentration ([K+]o) within a physiologically relevant range. Reduction of [K+]o led to accelerated internalization and degradation of HERG channels within hours. Confocal analysis revealed colocalization between HERG and ubiquitin during the process of HERG internalization, and overexpression of ubiquitin facilitated HERG degradation under low [K+]o. The HERG channels colocalized with a marker of multivesicular bodies during internalization, and the internalized HERG channels were targeted to lysosomes. Our results provide the first evidence to our knowledge that the cell surface density of a voltage-gated K+ channel, HERG, is regulated by a biological factor, extracellular K+. Because hypokalemia is known to exacerbate long QT syndrome (LQTS) and Torsades de pointes tachyarrhythmias, our findings provide a potential mechanistic link between hypokalemia and LQTS.
Sirt3 blocks the cardiac hypertrophic response by augmenting Foxo3a-dependent antioxidant defense mechanisms in mice
Nagalingam R. Sundaresan, Madhu Gupta, Gene Kim, Senthilkumar B. Rajamohan, Ayman Isbatan, Mahesh P. Gupta
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S
irtuin 3 (SIRT3) is a member of the sirtuin family of proteins that promote longevity in many organisms. Increased expression of SIRT3 has been linked to an extended life span in humans. Here, we have shown that Sirt3 protects the mouse heart by blocking the cardiac hypertrophic response. Although Sirt3-deficient mice appeared to have normal activity, they showed signs of cardiac hypertrophy and interstitial fibrosis at 8 weeks of age. Application of hypertrophic stimuli to these mice produced a severe cardiac hypertrophic response, whereas Sirt3-expressing Tg mice were protected from similar stimuli. In primary cultures of cardiomyocytes, Sirt3 blocked cardiac hypertrophy by activating the forkhead box O3a–dependent (Foxo3a-dependent), antioxidant–encoding genes manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and catalase (Cat), thereby decreasing cellular levels of ROS. Reduced ROS levels suppressed Ras activation and downstream signaling through the MAPK/ERK and PI3K/Akt pathways. This resulted in repressed activity of transcription factors, specifically GATA4 and NFAT, and translation factors, specifically eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (elf4E) and S6 ribosomal protein (S6P), which are involved in the development of cardiac hypertrophy. These results demonstrate that SIRT3 is an endogenous negative regulator of cardiac hypertrophy, which protects hearts by suppressing cellular levels of ROS.
MicroRNA-208a is a regulator of cardiac hypertrophy and conduction in mice
Thomas E. Callis, Kumar Pandya, Hee Young Seok, Ru-Hang Tang, Mariko Tatsuguchi, Zhan-Peng Huang, Jian-Fu Chen, Zhongliang Deng, Bronwyn Gunn, Janelle Shumate, Monte S. Willis, Craig H. Selzman, Da-Zhi Wang
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icroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small noncoding RNAs that have gained status as important regulators of gene expression. Here, we investigated the function and molecular mechanisms of the miR-208 family of miRNAs in adult mouse heart physiology. We found that miR-208a, which is encoded within an intron of α-cardiac muscle myosin heavy chain gene (Myh6), was actually a member of a miRNA family that also included miR-208b, which was determined to be encoded within an intron of β-cardiac muscle myosin heavy chain gene (Myh7). These miRNAs were differentially expressed in the mouse heart, paralleling the expression of their host genes. Transgenic overexpression of miR-208a in the heart was sufficient to induce hypertrophic growth in mice, which resulted in pronounced repression of the miR-208 regulatory targets thyroid hormone–associated protein 1 and myostatin, 2 negative regulators of muscle growth and hypertrophy. Studies of the miR-208a Tg mice indicated that miR-208a expression was sufficient to induce arrhythmias. Furthermore, analysis of mice lacking miR-208a indicated that miR-208a was required for proper cardiac conduction and expression of the cardiac transcription factors homeodomain-only protein and GATA4 and the gap junction protein connexin 40. Together, our studies uncover what we believe are novel miRNA-dependent mechanisms that modulate cardiac hypertrophy and electrical conduction.
Transfusion of minor histocompatibility antigen–mismatched platelets induces rejection of bone marrow transplants in mice
Seema R. Patel, Chantel M. Cadwell, Arielle Medford, James C. Zimring
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one marrow transplantation (BMT) represents a cure for nonmalignant hematological disorders. However, compared with the stringent conditioning regimens used when performing BMT to treat hematological malignancies, the reduced intensity conditioning regimen used in the context of nonmalignant hematological disorders leads to substantially higher rates of BMT rejection, presumably due to an intact immune system. The relevant patient population typically receives transfusion support, often including platelets, and the frequency of BMT rejection correlates with the frequency of transfusion. Here, we demonstrate that immunity to transfused platelets contributes to subsequent BMT rejection in mice, even when the BMT donor and recipient are MHC matched. We used MHC-matched bone marrow because, although immunity to transfused platelets is best characterized in relation to HLA-specific antibodies, such antibodies are unlikely to play a role in clinical BMT rejection that is HLA matched. However, bone marrow is not matched in the clinic for minor histocompatibility antigens, such as those carried by platelets, and we report that transfusion of minor histocompatibility antigen–mismatched platelets induced subsequent BMT rejection. These findings indicate previously unappreciated sequelae of immunity to platelets in the context of transplantation and suggest that strategies to account for minor histocompatibility mismatching may help to reduce the chance of BMT rejection in human patients.
A role for pericytes as microenvironmental regulators of human skin tissue regeneration
Sophie Paquet-Fifield, Holger Schlüter, Amy Li, Tara Aitken, Pradnya Gangatirkar, Daniel Blashki, Rachel Koelmeyer, Normand Pouliot, Manuela Palatsides, Sarah Ellis, Nathalie Brouard, Andrew Zannettino, Nick Saunders, Natalie Thompson, Jason Li, Pritinder Kaur
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he cellular and molecular microenvironment of epithelial stem and progenitor cells is poorly characterized despite well-documented roles in homeostatic tissue renewal, wound healing, and cancer progression. Here, we demonstrate that, in organotypic cocultures, dermal pericytes substantially enhanced the intrinsically low tissue-regenerative capacity of human epidermal cells that have committed to differentiate and that this enhancement was independent of angiogenesis. We used microarray analysis to identify genes expressed by human dermal pericytes that could potentially promote epidermal regeneration. Using this approach, we identified as a candidate the gene LAMA5, which encodes laminin α5, a subunit of the ECM component laminin-511/521 (LM-511/521). LAMA5 was of particular interest as we had previously shown that it promotes skin regeneration both in vitro and in vivo. Analysis using immunogold localization revealed that pericytes synthesized and secreted LAMA5 in human skin. Consistent with this observation, coculture with pericytes enhanced LM-511/521 deposition in the dermal-epidermal junction of organotypic cultures. We further showed that skin pericytes could also act as mesenchymal stem cells, exhibiting the capacity to differentiate into bone, fat, and cartilage lineages in vitro. This study suggests that pericytes represent a potent stem cell population in the skin that is capable of modifying the ECM microenvironment and promoting epidermal tissue renewal from non-stem cells, a previously unsuspected role for pericytes.
The transcription factor ATF4 regulates glucose metabolism in mice through its expression in osteoblasts
Tatsuya Yoshizawa, Eiichi Hinoi, Dae Young Jung, Daisuke Kajimura, Mathieu Ferron, Jin Seo, Jonathan M. Graff, Jason K. Kim, Gerard Karsenty
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he recent demonstration that osteoblasts have a role in controlling energy metabolism suggests that they express cell-specific regulatory genes involved in this process. Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) is a transcription factor that accumulates predominantly in osteoblasts, where it regulates virtually all functions linked to the maintenance of bone mass. Since Atf4–/– mice have smaller fat pads than littermate controls, we investigated whether ATF4 also influences energy metabolism. Here, we have shown, through analysis of Atf4–/– mice, that ATF4 inhibits insulin secretion and decreases insulin sensitivity in liver, fat, and muscle. Several lines of evidence indicated that this function of ATF4 occurred through its osteoblastic expression. First, insulin sensitivity is enhanced in the liver of Atf4–/– mice, but not in cultured hepatocytes from these mice. Second, mice overexpressing ATF4 in osteoblasts only [termed here α1(I)Collagen-Atf4 mice] displayed a decrease in insulin secretion and were insulin insensitive. Third, the α1(I)Collagen-Atf4 transgene corrected the energy metabolism phenotype of Atf4–/– mice. Fourth, and more definitely, mice lacking ATF4 only in osteoblasts presented the same metabolic abnormalities as Atf4–/– mice. Molecularly, ATF4 favored expression in osteoblasts of Esp, which encodes a product that decreases the bioactivity of osteocalcin, an osteoblast-specific secreted molecule that enhances secretion of and sensitivity to insulin. These results provide a transcriptional basis to the observation that osteoblasts fulfill endocrine functions and identify ATF4 as a regulator of most functions of osteoblasts.
Technical Advance
Generation of mature human myelomonocytic cells through expansion and differentiation of pluripotent stem cell–derived lin–CD34+CD43+CD45+ progenitors
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asic research into human mature myelomonocytic cell function, myeloid lineage diversification and leukemic transformation, and assessment of myelotoxicity in preclinical drug development requires a constant supply of donor blood or bone marrow samples and laborious purification of mature myeloid cells or progenitors, which are present in very small quantities. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a protocol for efficient generation of neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, osteoclasts, DCs, and Langerhans cells from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). As a first step, we generated lin–CD34+CD43+CD45+ hematopoietic cells highly enriched in myeloid progenitors through coculture of hESCs with OP9 feeder cells. After expansion in the presence of GM-CSF, these cells were directly differentiated with specific cytokine combinations toward mature cells of particular types. Morphologic, phenotypic, molecular, and functional analyses revealed that hESC-derived myelomonocytic cells were comparable to their corresponding somatic counterparts. In addition, we demonstrated that a similar protocol could be used to generate myelomonocytic cells from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). This technology offers an opportunity to generate large numbers of patient-specific myelomonocytic cells for in vitro studies of human disease mechanisms as well as for drug screening.
Technical Advance
Molecularly targeted nanocarriers deliver the cytolytic peptide melittin specifically to tumor cells in mice, reducing tumor growth
Neelesh R. Soman, Steven L. Baldwin, Grace Hu, Jon N. Marsh, Gregory M. Lanza, John E. Heuser, Jeffrey M. Arbeit, Samuel A. Wickline, Paul H. Schlesinger
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he in vivo application of cytolytic peptides for cancer therapeutics is hampered by toxicity, nonspecificity, and degradation. We previously developed a specific strategy to synthesize a nanoscale delivery vehicle for cytolytic peptides by incorporating the nonspecific amphipathic cytolytic peptide melittin into the outer lipid monolayer of a perfluorocarbon nanoparticle. Here, we have demonstrated that the favorable pharmacokinetics of this nanocarrier allows accumulation of melittin in murine tumors in vivo and a dramatic reduction in tumor growth without any apparent signs of toxicity. Furthermore, direct assays demonstrated that molecularly targeted nanocarriers selectively delivered melittin to multiple tumor targets, including endothelial and cancer cells, through a hemifusion mechanism. In cells, this hemifusion and transfer process did not disrupt the surface membrane but did trigger apoptosis and in animals caused regression of precancerous dysplastic lesions. Collectively, these data suggest that the ability to restrain the wide-spectrum lytic potential of a potent cytolytic peptide in a nanovehicle, combined with the flexibility of passive or active molecular targeting, represents an innovative molecular design for chemotherapy with broad-spectrum cytolytic peptides for the treatment of cancer at multiple stages.
CTLs are targeted to kill β cells in patients with type 1
diabetes through recognition of a glucose-regulated preproinsulin
epitope
Ania Skowera, Richard J. Ellis, Ruben Varela-Calviño, Sefina Arif, Guo Cai Huang, Cassie Van-Krinks, Anna Zaremba, Chloe Rackham, Jennifer S. Allen, Timothy I.M. Tree, Min Zhao, Colin M. Dayan, Andrew K. Sewell, Wendy W. Unger, Jan W. Drijfhout, Ferry Ossendorp, Bart O. Roep, Mark Peakman
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Reduced levels of neurotransmitter-degrading enzyme PRCP promote obesity
Inherited human cPLA2α deficiency is
associated with impaired eicosanoid biosynthesis, small intestinal ulceration,
and platelet dysfunction
David H. Adler, Joy D. Cogan, John A. Phillips III, Nathalie Schnetz-Boutaud, Ginger L. Milne, Tina Iverson, Jeffrey A. Stein, David A. Brenner, Jason D. Morrow, Olivier Boutaud, John A. Oates
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