The hormones insulin, leptin, and ghrelin have been demonstrated to act in the central
nervous system (CNS) as regulators of energy homeostasis, acting at medial hypothalamic
sites. Here, we summarize research demonstrating that, in addition to direct homeostatic
actions at the hypothalamus, CNS circuitry that subserves reward and is also a direct and
indirect target for the action of these endocrine regulators of energy homeostasis.
Specifically, insulin and leptin can decrease food reward behaviors and modulate the …