Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a central role in the response of both the innate and the adaptive immune system to microbial ligands. There is also evidence that they are stimulated by endogenous ligands. In this review, I discuss evidence that they are important in renal disease. This discussion considers the role of both endogenous and microbial ligands, and also the contribution of TLRs present on leucocytes and on intrinsic renal cells. There is strong evidence of a role for TLR2 and TLR4 in renal ischaemia-reperfusion injury, with the effects probably mediated by endogenous ligands. In systemic lupus erythematosus, stimulation of TLR7 and TLR9 by host-derived nucleic acids is important. TLR7 stimulation exacerbates disease, but the role of TLR9 is complex. I also discuss evidence that they are important in other forms of glomerulonephritis, with evidence derived mainly from experimental models in which exogenous ligands have been administered.