The DNA damage response is a hierarchical process. DNA damage is detected by sensor
proteins such as the MRN complex that transmit the information to transducer proteins such
as ATM and ATR, which control the damage response through the phosphorylation of
effector proteins. The extent of the DNA damage determines cell fate: cell cycle arrest and
DNA repair or the activation of apoptotic pathways. In aerobic cells, reactive oxygen species
(ROS) are generated as a by-product of normal mitochondrial activity. If not properly …