Proton and/or sodium electrochemical gradients are critical to energy handling at the plasma
membranes of all living cells. Sodium gradients are used for animal plasma membranes, all
other living organisms use proton gradients. These chemical and electrical gradients are
either created by a cation pumping ATPase or are created by photons or redox, used to
make ATP. It has been established that both hydrogen and sodium ions leak through lipid
bilayers at approximately the same rate at the concentration they occur in living organisms …