To understand the success or failure of immune responses against pathogens or tumours requires the direct measurement of specific lymphocytes. Recently, there has been an explosion of data in this field through the use of several new tools for measuring the number and function of T cells. This has allowed immunologists who study human disease and mouse models of infection and cancer to readily track specific T cells — in both time and space. Although there are common patterns, over time, each host–pathogen relationship seems to develop unique characteristics, as reflected in the quality of the T-cell response.