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Abstract
Cancer risk is modulated by hereditary and somatic mutations, exposures, age, sex, and gender. The mechanisms by which sex and gender work alone and in combination with other cancer risk factors remain underexplored. In general, cancers that occur in both the male and female sexes occur more commonly in XY compared with XX individuals, regardless of genetic ancestry, geographic location, and age. Moreover, XY individuals are less frequently cured of their cancers, highlighting the need for a greater understanding of sex and gender effects in oncology. This will be necessary for optimal laboratory and clinical cancer investigations. To that end, we review the epigenetics of sexual differentiation and its effect on cancer hallmark pathways throughout life. Specifically, we will touch on how sex differences in metabolism, immunity, pluripotency, and tumor suppressor functions are patterned through the epigenetic effects of imprinting, sex chromosome complement, X inactivation, genes escaping X inactivation, sex hormones, and life history.
Authors
Joshua B. Rubin, Tamara Abou-Antoun, Joseph E. Ippolito, Lorida Llaci, Camryn T. Marquez, Jason P. Wong, Lihua Yang
Usage data is cumulative from June 2025 through June 2026.
| Usage | JCI | PMC |
|---|---|---|
| Text version | 3,752 | 420 |
| 910 | 91 | |
| Figure | 1,121 | 7 |
| Citation downloads | 206 | 0 |
| Totals | 5,989 | 518 |
| Total Views | 6,507 | |
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Copyright © 2026 American Society for Clinical Investigation
ISSN: 0021-9738 (print), 1558-8238 (online)