Acute renal failure (ARF), classically defined as an abrupt decrease in kidney function that
leads to accumulation of nitrogenous wastes such as blood urea nitrogen and creatinine, is
a common clinical problem with increasing incidence, serious consequences, unsatisfactory
therapeutic options, and an enormous financial burden to society (1–5). ARF may be
classified as prerenal (functional response of structurally normal kidneys to hypoperfusion),
intrinsic renal (involving structural damage to the renal parenchyma), and postrenal (urinary …